strategies

Following a recent meeting with Mrs. Viviane Reding, the newly appointed EU Commissioner for Information Society and Media, the European eLearning Industry Group (eLIG ) has published a set of 10 recommendations which it considers necessary to make the Lisbon target of improved economic growth and more and better jobs a reality. The eLearning Industry Group (eLIG), a consortium of 43 leading ICT and eLearning content providers, both private and public, believes that if the EU is to achieve its objective of being the most competitive knowledge-based economy in the world by 2010, there is a need to actively support the widespread deployment and adoption of new content publishing and management technologies throughout Europe, in education and training, in the home and in industry and especially among SMEs.

The eLIG Manifesto lists 10 recommendations intended to help European central and local governments, public authorities and content industry players to contribute to, and benefit from, the emerging global society of knowledge. The European content industries are facing the challenge of convergence of media related technologies in a situation of fragmentation and localisation - on the other hand the cultural diversity, and the multi-lingual situation represent the core strengths of Europe. The transformation of the content industries has only begun - the challenges are huge and range from the protection of investments, to establishing standards for truly interoperable content. eLIG considers this as a key subject for advancing the Lisbon process.

1. Better balancing of public investment

Pedagogical resources, software and services have in most cases been neglected in public investments. Achieving a world-class broadband infrastructure is a pre-requisite of the Lisbon Strategy but public investment should better balance the four key elements of an eLearning public policy (infrastructure, open standards, quality content and services, teacher training) in order to maximise the benefits to the end users.

2. Supporting Europe’s cultural and linguistic diversity

It is highly desirable, for social and cultural reasons to promote linguistic and cultural diversity, but the European content industry cannot achieve this objective without public support to help recover the extremely high fixed costs of producing multilingual contents serving various pedagogical models and curriculums. More significant resources must be allocated to the development of pedagogical content and tools to generate, maintain and access that content. The next generation of IST programmes should include significant action lines for the production of quality multilingual eLearning materials.

3. Managing Intellectual Property Rights and Licensing Conditions

ICT deployment public policies should combine funding and appropriate licensing conditions regarding the purchase of educational resources. Funding should not be viewed as a substitute for licensing. Urgent action is needed to give publishers further incentives to invest in digital materials. Proper digital management of Intellectual Property Rights solutions (DRMs) should include identification of rights, description of content packaged in an interoperable format and technological protection measures preventing unauthorized use. DRMs based on these specifications are market-enabling solutions. There is no evidence that specific IPR legislation is needed in the education environment.

4. Maintaining fair competition while exploring new business models based on PPPs

Public sector broadcasters in Europe (such as the BBC) often hold a unique position in the eLearning market, having been granted permission (and in some cases, strongly encouraged) to produce quality editorial materials distributed on a commercial basis. Public-private partnerships including public and private sector publishers should be encouraged. We do not support another view expressed¹ in favour of a public-sector strategy for educational content creation.

5. eContent for all: take-up by all citizens and enterprises

In order to build a European Knowledge Society which is accessible to all, there is a need to provide basic ICT training to all citizens especially the less advantaged and to promote the benefits of ICT, including eLearning amongst all citizens and enterprises. The EU and its Member States need to invest heavily in these areas.

6. EU level harmonization: towards a Common Core of Content

The European Commission should explore the possibility of a Public-Private Partnership-based approach to define a Common Core of Content (in terms of skills) needed to achieve the Lisbon goals. Yet, public support and funding should remain focused on the traditional approach where pedagogy and skills depend on subject, language and curriculum-specific contents. The Common Core approach could complement the traditional approach.

7. The importance of interoperability and open standards for content repository, exchange, re-usability and re-localization: more R&D is needed on these topics

Important unsolved R&D topics in technologies and standards for content remain. We recommend that publishers are involved in that standardisation process. Additional funding should be dedicated to research and supporting activities aimed at delivering workable solutions to improve content design and storage with a view to automating reusability and facilitating re-localization based on licensing conditions.

8. The issue of Granularity: impact on personalisation features

There has been much confusion between a demand for flexibility and a misconception of granularity. The aspiration for flexibility needs to be weighed against the reality, and the desirability, of the majority of teachers having limited time and will to select and aggregate content. It is important for any eLearning Strategy to acknowledge and work into its plans the fact that publishers already offer a range of tools to support customisation, at the level that most users want, as well as packaged solutions supporting a high level of flexibility.

9. How to measure and improve quality of learning materials?

Where e-learning public policy focuses on the development of low-value, low cost and poorly standardised nuggets designed by amateurs or service providers as promotional material, with limited public commitment or support, there is no incentive for publishers to heavily invest in the production of quality editorial content. However, there has been a growing demand for quality assurance for digital pedagogical content. We are firmly convinced that the best way to achieve quality assurance for content is the editorial process, which should be stimulated so that commercial success can nurture a virtuous development cycle.

10. Need for advanced broadband for the development of rich content

True broadband is needed for the development of rich and interactive education content. The broadband picture in Europe remains fragmented. Broadband penetration is higher in those countries with competitive infrastructure but remains very low in many countries, with entire areas with no access to broadband. Also, the focus in Europe remains on “quantity” of broadband and not on “quality”. There is no focus on the need to deploy next generation broadband facilities providing high speeds, which will enable the creation of richer and more innovative education content and services. International developments in parts of Asia show that next generation broadband facilities are being deployed, and these developments are triggering new and richer content education products and services. Achieving a world-class broadband infrastructure that supports high quality and fast communications, which will enable rich education content development should be a corner stone of i-Europe 2010.

1. The consultation workshops report on Access Rights for eLearning Content’ & ‘Creating, sharing and reusing eLearning Content’ Brussels, 05 January 2005 DG EAC/BH D(2004)

Article extracted from eCompete

Le Lycée Apostolos Varvanas à Chypre est le 10 000e établissement scolaire à adhérer à eTwinning. Il peut maintenant utiliser gratuitement les services proposés sur le portail eTwinning de la Commission européenne pour créer des partenariats avec d’autres écoles dans toute l’Europe. À l’instar des nombreuses autres écoles enregistrées, le lycée en question découvrira qu’il appartient entièrement aux établissements scolaires participant à l’action de décider eux-mêmes de la nature du partenariat qu’ils souhaitent instaurer. Tout est possible dans l’initiative eTwinning, qu’il s’agisse simplement de s’inspirer des idées d’autres écoles d’Europe ou d'entreprendre avec elles des projets d’activités. Déjà 1500 écoles d’enseignement primaire et secondaire enregistrées sur le portail eTwinning sont engagées dans un projet en partenariat avec une ou plusieurs écoles d’Europe.

“eTwinning constitue une approche nouvelle et complémentaire de l’action de l’Europe dans le domaine de l’éducation”, a déclaré Jàn Figel’, commissaire en charge de l’éducation, de la formation, de la culture et du multilinguisme. “L’action eTwinning se distingue de nos autres programmes en matière d’éducation en cela qu'au lieu de financer des projets individuels, elle fournit aux établissements scolaires une infrastructure, des instruments et des services dans le but de leur faciliter autant que possible la création de tous types de partenariats, depuis des projets à court terme jusqu’à des projets en coopération de longue durée, dans n’importe quel domaine. Les services sont gratuits et ne nécessitent aucune procédure administrative lourde. L’action eTwinning est un moyen très efficace d'encourager l’utilisation des TIC et l’acquisition d’aptitudes linguistiques et de compétences interculturelles dans l’enseignement scolaire.”

L’initiative eTwinning génère de l’innovation dans l’enseignement et motive les élèves à apprendre. Les élèves, les enseignants, les directeurs d’établissement et les autres membres du personnel scolaire utilisent les services eTwinning pour ajouter une dimension européenne à la vie scolaire. Au travers de l’internet, ils travaillent ensemble de maintes manières différentes avec leurs pairs dans d’autres pays, ils bavardent en ligne, s’envoient des courriels et s’échangent des idées et du matériel pédagogique. Thérèse Hagberg, professeur dans le cycle secondaire inférieur en Suède, a reconnu que “l’action eTwinning a contribué à augmenter nos contacts avec le reste de l'Europe et a ouvert notre école au monde qui nous entoure ”.

Pour la première fois, les meilleurs projets eTwinning seront récompensés en janvier 2006. Les écoles qui souhaitent concourir sont invitées à soumettre les résultats de leurs projets avant le 27 novembre par l’entremise du portail eTwinning. La cérémonie de remise des prix aura lieu le 13 janvier 2006, au cours de la conférence eTwinning à Linz, Autriche.
Pour de plus amples informations sur cette action, veuillez consulter le portail eTwinning de la Commission européenne.

The texts proposed in this annotated biblio-webliography can be useful instruments to enable a closer approach to the vast field of e-learning, understood by the author of the proposal of the ANEE (Associazione Nazionale Editoria Elettronica, the national electronic publishing association) in the following way:

“E-learning is a teaching and learning method that involves the formative product and process. Formative product means every type of material or content made available in digital format by means of computer or network channels. Formative process means the management of the entire didactic itinerary that involves aspects of distribution, fruition, interaction and evaluation” (ANEE, E-learning Observatory, 2003).

E-learning constitutes a broad sector with many facets. The themes to be taken into consideration vary and knowledge of the complexity of the issue is fundamental in order to have a global vision. It would be a mistake to consider this kind of education from a purely technical point of view; nor should one deal with it by limiting oneself to the didactic and methodological aspects.

Although one often makes the mistake of thinking that, for this form of education, it is sufficient to obtain, and concern oneself solely with, platforms, learning management systems, learning objects, etc. (thus delegating educational strategies to technical instruments), experience has shown that, in order to accomplish successful e-learning, it is essential to carry out an in-depth restructuring of educational processes, maintain a constructive and collaborative approach to e-learning, and re-think the roles, placing the student at the centre of the educational process.

It is clear that didactic and methodological issues should always remain in the foreground; nevertheless, keeping an eye also on the instruments and following the technological developments that accompany e-learning from a purely technical point of view is a necessity, if not an obligation. This is fundamental in order to innovate education, taking the best advantage of everything that technology makes available to improve, integrate and strengthen the learning procedure.

The biblio-webliography is sub-divided into the following themed areas, which have been separated in order to deal with the various constituent elements of e-learning with greater clarity:

• GUIDELINES: Research and National Governing Guidelines• TECHNOLOGICAL ELEMENTS: Platforms, Standards, Learning Objects, Open-source.
• EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT: Production/Planning of Contents, Instructional Design
• EDUCATIONAL PROCESS: Methodological Aspects, Collaborative Approach, On-line Tutoring
• FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS: Integration with KM, Mobile or Wireless Learning
  

Guidelines
Key terms: Research and National Governing Guidelines.

With the aim of providing valid support to deal with the problems resulting from innovation processes in Italy, a number of bodies and associations (including the CNIPA, ASFOR and ASSINFORM) have become involved in creating documents either to operate and provide guidance in the sector of distance learning, or to understand the terminology and methodology within.

There are a number of key texts that are of interest in terms of having a full view of the situation concerning e-learning in Italy.

• ASFOR Lettera Asfor n.3/2002. “The e-learning planet and the Asfor proposals: from Guidelines to Glossary”, in ASFOR, 2002 (consulted on 15 July 2005).
  
  A full glossary with a further 450 terms, the objective of which is to constitute a reference point for the entire public and private education sector. The aim of the ASFOR initiative is to offer clarity in the somewhat confusing sector of e-learning, starting with the terminology itself, often hostile, which is used in this field of activities. ASFOR is the Association for Management Education Development, and has also created the guidelines for the on-line Master’s accreditation process.
  
• CNIPA (a cura di). “Vademecum for the execution of e-learning educational projects in public administrations”, in CNIPA, 2004 (consulted on 15 July 2005).
  
  An extremely useful, complete and accurate publication drawn up by the CNIPA (National Centre for Information Technology in Public Administration). It contains guidelines for educational e-learning projects in public administrations, with the aim of promoting the correct use of new methodologies and technologies for education. The section dedicated to the organisational and methodological aspects of management of an e-learning project is of note, and particular attention is paid to the numerous and diverse roles and professional figures involved.
  
• Liscia R. (2004). E-learning: stato dell’arte e prospettive di sviluppo (E-learning: state of the art and development perspectives) Milan: Apogeo.
  
  The ANEE (National Association of Electronic Publishing) of ASSINFORM (National Association of Producers of Technology and Services for Information and Communication) carried out the E-learning Observatory 2004 in order to study the current trends in the Italian market and provide an up-to-date scenario of the sector. The study revealed that the e-learning sector in Italy has grown steadily for the third year in a row. The study was carried out under the aegis of the Ministry for Innovation and Technology and with the collaboration of companies and universities operating in the distance learning sector (including Microsoft, Banca Intesa, Sfera, Telecom Italia Learning Services, Isvor Fiat, the State University of Milan and the Polytechnic of Milan).
  

Technological Elements
Key terms: Platforms, SCORM Standard, Learning Objects, Open-source.

The section presents texts concerning mainly technical issues such as the e-learning standards (SCORM – Shareable Content Object Reference Model), learning objects and the diverse types of software (open-source). Nevertheless, the majority of the texts could also be of use to those who have less expertise, from a technical/technological point of view, or to those who need not deal exclusively with technical issues, because it provides an overall framework in relation to the world of e-learning.

Those involved in instructional design, or those needing guidance in the choice of technological solutions for the definition and organisation of virtual learning environments, will undoubtedly find it useful to go into greater depth with regard to certain essential technical concepts (for example, the importance of metadata, the possibilities that the standards offer or the consequences of the adoption of a specific instrument, be it synchronous or asynchronous, on the type of approach of the on-line course, etc.) and thus perceive the way in which the technological environment can restrict or increase the learning and methodological possibilities of distance learning.

• ADL Initiative. “The SCORM Implementation Guide: A Step by Step Approach”, in ADL (Advanced Distributed Learning), November 2002 (consulted on 15 July 2005).
  
  This text may be useful for the practical application of SCORM and may be considered a good starting point for instructional designers. It is a practical guide that provides interesting and precise ideas for the organisation of a SCORM project. Four main phases may be noted: analysis (needs, content, target); planning; content development; and verification and testing. This is a document under continuous development.
  
• ADL Initiative. “Shareable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) 2004 2nd Edition”, in ADL (Advanced Distributed Learning), July 2004 (consulted on 15 July 2005).
  
  The text, which is in its second edition, provides an overall view of all of the documentation regarding the SCORM particulars, the main characteristics of which are illustrated in the latest version (SCORM 2004 or 1.3). Although this is an overview, the language used is technical. Further information regarding the technical details of SCORM can be found in three other documents: CAM (Content Aggregation Model), RTE (Run Time Environment) and SN (Sequencing and Navigation). The ADL (Advanced Distributed Learning) is one of the main organisations to advance the initiative for the e-learning standards, and is sponsored by the Department of Defence (DoD) of the USA. This is a collaboration programme between the government, industry and universities, the objective of which is to define how to make the learning instruments and contents interoperational.
  
• Barritt C. / Alderman Jr F. L. (2004). Creating a Reusable Learning Object Strategy. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
  
  An introduction manual that highlights all of the problems regarding the implementation of a strategy of learning objects in organisations and companies. It analyses the life cycle of the reusable content and is based on real corporate experiences. It is characterised in particular by costs and the increase in ROI (Return Of Investment). It is not very useful from a didactic point of view, in that it does not deal with issues regarding didactic strategies but limits itself to economic and organisational matters.
  
  
• Carnegie Mellon University. “SCORM Best Practices Guide for Content Developers”, in LSAL (Carnegie Mellon Learning Systems Architecture Lab), 2003 (consulted on 29 June 2005).
  
  A guide aimed at content creators and instructional designers, a valid support for the creation of materials compatible with the SCORM standard, or even to convert existing material. It contains advice and techniques for the implementation of particulars, but it does not substitute the other official, more technical, documents. Document edited by Learning Systems Architecture Lab (LSAL) of the Carnegie Mellon University (Pittsburgh, USA).
  
  
• Carnegie Mellon University. “Simple Sequencing Templates & Models”, in LSAL (Carnegie Mellon Learning Systems Architecture Lab), 2003 (consulted on 29 June 2005).
  
  A document illustrating the main sequencing rules of the didactic contents that provide the learning object designers with control over the learning process. For example, by means of the setting of certain rules, it is possible to establish a minimum number of points to be obtained in a test as a requisite in order to be able to go on to other contents, or even make it obligatory to consult certain materials before being able to move on to other sections of the course. The objective is to have a universally shared sequencing model.
  
• Fini A / Vanni L. (2004). Learning object e metadati. Quando, come e perché avvalersene. (Learning objects and metadata; when, how and why these should be used). I quaderni di formare n. 2. Trento: Edizioni Erickson.
  
  An excellent, complete and clear book; above all, it is correct in its approach to learning objects. It provides a number of practical examples regarding instruments, as well as the various experiences on a national and international level regarding the application of standards. The chapter on “Questions, critiques and problems” is of particular interest, as it provides a useful overview of the debate under way which, for some time now, has offered encouragement to researchers and students in the sector with regard to the true didactic value of the learning objects and the possibility of using them effectively.
  
• Fontanesi P. (2003). E-learning. Milan: Tecniche Nuove (New Techniques).
  
  These texts put forward a brief and concise framework from a theoretical point of view (what e-learning is, main definitions and characteristics), as well as from a technological point of view and in terms of the changes under way in the sector. The market standards are illustrated and explained in a simple manner, even for non-experts. The guidelines to choose an e-learning system are of great use, as is the section devoted to practical examples of available instruments and platforms. Besides these, it is a practical resource for novices who intend to embark on an e-learning project and who, therefore, require certain basic notions, this book also takes a look at the future of distance learning, highlighting the potentials and fields of application of mobile learning.
  
• Pasini N. “What content developers & instructional designers need to know: an overview of SCORM concepts”, in LSAL (Carnegie Mellon Learning Systems Architecture Lab). 2002 (consulted on 29 June 2005).
  
  A presentation (PowerPoint) produced by Nina Pasini, from Carnegie Mellon University (Pittsburgh, USA) that provides an outline of the advantages of contents in standard format: the contents become reusable (it is possible to reuse them in a number of learning contexts), interoperable (they can be used with diverse instruments and in various platforms), durable (they will resist technological developments), and accessible (it is possible to individualise and access the available contents in various places). Of particular interest is the section devoted to the impact of SCORM on the design of e-learning processes and therefore on instructional design. Although this is a presentation containing a content outline, the author clearly explains certain fundamental concepts and stresses that the instructional designer should not be responsible for including all of the technical details of SCORM, but should concentrate mainly on the design of effective content.
  
• Pettinari E-L / Rotta M. “Ambienti sincroni in Open Source” (Synchronous environments in open-source), in Form@re Erickson, February 2005 (consulted on 29 June 2005).
  
  The article presents an overview of how the environments for synchronous communication in a didactic sphere are considered. The importance of synchronous communication instruments (such as chat, audio/video conference, etc.) has been safely proved in constructivist-type courses, which see interaction as the key to the construction of knowledge. Nevertheless, the open-source world, unlike what is currently taking place with owner software, still offers a limited number of solutions of this kind. After giving an outline of the main characteristics of synchronous spheres, the authors illustrate some of the instruments of this kind that are currently available, and often little known; for example, platforms, chats and shared blackboards. The authors conclude with a presentation of a number of experiences and specific cases. This is an interesting contribution in order to understand the state of the art regarding the use of synchronous environments in the didactic sphere and the possibilities, unfortunately little known, made available by open-source.
  
• Rotta M. “L'accessibilità e l'usabilità delle piattaforme Open Source” (The accessibility and usability of open-source platforms), in Form@re – Erickson, February 2005 (consulted on 29 June 2005).
  
  The problem of accessibility by differently-abled subjects remains unresolved in the majority of e-learning platforms. Their architecture often makes it harder and more complicated to adjust to the WAI (Web Accessibility Initiative) standards. The author shows that there is still a great lack of attention devoted to the issue, although research groups and specific projects (such as the Commonwealth of Learning or the MIUR Technological Observatory) are dealing specifically with the issue. Part of the problem stems from the fact that there are still too many barriers in e-learning, not only technological ones, but above all cognitive ones, concerning the planning and bad organisation of educational plans. The barriers with cognitive implications are still such a huge problem that they overshadow the technical barriers. One potential solution is the possibility of making open-source type platforms accessible since, given their nature (the possibility of accessing the source code), they can be modified and adapted to specific requirements. This is a task that undoubtedly requires time and work, but it is possible.
  
• Rotta M. “Open Source e scuola: alcune riflessioni” (Open Source and school: some reflections), in Form@re – Erickson, February 2005 (consulted on 29 June 2005).
  
  This interesting article by Rotta offers an in-depth framework regarding the perception and aims of the use of open-source software in schools. The author stresses that, although this has been talked about and debated for a while now, one often mistakenly thinks of open-source mainly as a means of breaking up the Microsoft monopoly, or to obtain free software. This is not correct, since the situation is actually complex, whereby the types of license vary and the scenario is constantly evolving. Rotta criticises the fact that, too often, the technological choice prevails over the didactic one (hardware and software are, in fact, only instruments of an educational strategy) and that insufficient attention is devoted to the learning project. Dwelling too much on the ideological debate under way regarding open-source does not appear to be very useful in relation to schools, which should also take into account the fact that, besides CMS and platforms, there is a great deal of specific software (text editors, graphic, sound and animation editors, etc.) that can be used for didactic purposes.
  
  
• Sinform - Sinergie per la formazione (2003). Gli standard internazionali di produzione dei contenuti didattici: il modello SCORM (International production standards for didactic content: the SCORM model), project financed by the region of Emilia Romagna.
  
  A complete and in-depth report on e-learning standards. It deals with technical issues, such as the Content Aggregation Model (specifics to define data and content in XML for learning objects) and Run Time Environment (specifics that enable communication between objects and LMS) in a simple and accessible manner, even for beginners. The issue of metadata is explored in depth in an accurate way. Also of interest is the section on conformity and LMS and content certification, an issue about which little information is found in networks and literature on the standards.
  
• Whiley D. “Learning Objects, a definition”, in Wiley, 2002 (consulted on 29 June 2005).
  
  For the creation of reusable content, the SCORM model is based on Learning Objects (LOs). One of the most recognised and used definitions of learning objects, also because of its flexibility and indefiniteness, is that which can be found in this document by Whiley: a learning object is “every digital resource that can be used to assist learning”.
  

Formative Product
Key terms: Instructional Design, Content Design.

Instructional Design is the application of learning principles and theories and teaching for the development of formative participation. The instructional designer is responsible mainly for the organisation of the on-line education course, defining the instruments, the technological architecture and the storyboard, with the objective of creating effective learning experiences.

• Bruschi, Barbara / Perissinotto, Alessandro (2003). Come creare corsi on line (How to create on-line courses) Rome: Carocci Editore.
  
  This guide contains practical advice and methodological indications for those who intend to create on-line courses. It is particularly useful from a practical point of view, in that it offers good suggestions in relation to basic issues, such as the use of images, the usefulness of speakership, music, videos and animations, the strategies to use for the construction of texts, from formatting (graphical form and text arrangement) to the type of language (brief, schematic, syntactically simple and attractive). Also of note is the part relating to the structuring of the didactic learning objects which, according to the authors, should have an initial evaluation, an introduction, a set number of content units, a summary or conclusion of how much has been learnt and a closing learning assessment. The section on learning objects is not dealt with from a technical point of view, but a methodological one: the authors show a certain sensitivity in terms of the Italian learning situation, and indicate a different approach to the one suggested by those who drew up the standards. Indeed, it is often difficult to believe in the real combinability and standardisation of the learning objects and the possibility of applying a model of this type in a humanist environment. Therefore, methods that are more in keeping with the Italian education system and the cultural traditions of the country are put forward.
  
• Calvani, A. (2001). Educazione, comunicazione e nuovi media, Sfide pedagogiche e cyberspazio (Education, communication and the new media, pedagogical challenges and cyberspace) Turin: Utet.
  
  In this book, which deals with the main problems related to the use of technology in educational contexts, a number of interesting concepts emerge, such as “media ecology” and “didactic ergonomics”. The former regards the mechanisms to be borne in mind in learning environments, such as avoiding an overload of information, finding a balance between direct and indirect learning experiences, integrating and measuring out more learning channels, and using simple technologies. The latter concept concerns a discipline that is placed mid-way between the ergonomics and education technology, the object of which is the safeguarding of the cognitive commitment in the subjects involved, to prevent a levelling-off of the cognitive functions during the subject-technology interfacing.
  
• Lucchini A. “E-learning e scrittura professionale” (E-learning and professional writing) in Mestiere di Scrivere, 2004 (consulted on 12 July 2005).
  
  Lucchini is a business writer and is involved in professional writing courses. In this MdS (Mestiere di Scrivere, in PDF format) notebook, the author analyses (based on his own experiences and specific cases) the use of e-learning for education courses on writing, demonstrating the advantages of distance learning. The author dwells on the issue of the sense of isolation and coldness that can be experienced in a computer learning situation and, in this respect, puts forward methods of experimentation in order to increase the active and emotional involvement of the students and collaboration among them. He cites, for example, the CREAM method (Control, Relevance, Emotion, Action, Multi-sensory environment) proposed by Patrick Dunn (a learning strategist from DigitalThink UK Ltd.). The author comes to the following conclusive reflection: “… we can anticipate for the coming years a development in the profession of the e-learning writer. Not a simple extension of the web writer, or the technical writer, but a professional who, besides writing skills, requires the understanding of the psychological and didactic mechanisms that govern and promote learning”.
  
  
• Ranieri M. (2005) E-learning: modelli e strategie didattiche (E-learning: didactic models and strategies). I quaderni di Form@re n. 3. Trento: Edizioni Erickson.
  
  After providing an introduction to the concept of industrial design and the differences between the two main directions (instructivism and constructivism), the text illustrates the main types of e-learning that can be developed from the methodological point of view. This can be summarised in the following categories: content and support, the content being the central element, learning is individual in type and interaction with peers is scarce; wrap around, whereby content is less structured, learning is individual and in small groups, with the support of a facilitator; and integrated model, a form of e-learning that focuses on the group and in which there is a great deal of interaction between peers. After dealing with the problem of e-learning design and the factors that have an impact on this (use, objectives, content and infrastructure), the author stresses the role of the instructional designer and the importance of models and didactic strategies that can be implemented in networks.
  
• Guerra T. & Heffernan D. “The Guerra Scale”, in Learning Circuits, March 2004 (consulted on 12 July 2004).
  
  A very original point of view in terms of e-learning content is that defined by Tim Guerra and Dan Heffernan: the “Guerra Scale” describes the possible levels of interactive experience of the student in a scale that goes from one to ten, where the first levels are made of the simple reading of on-line PDF files or internet pages that are interconnected, and the final levels represent simulation scenarios attended by experts in the field and virtual realities. This is a very useful representation in that, going up one level in the scale, there is an increase in complexity, functionality, development times, programming capacity, course design capacity and the attention of the experts in the field.
  

Formative Process
Key terms: Collaborative Approach, On-line Tutoring.

This section presents a number of fundamental texts regarding network communication mechanisms, the various types of on-line interaction and the most effective methods for e-learning. If one wishes to conduct distance learning courses or devote oneself to tutoring activities, it is necessary to have a certain familiarity with the communicative dynamics of distance learning and be able to manage learning situations that respond to rules that differ greatly from those related to traditional forms of teaching.

• Anzalone, Francesa / Caburlotto, Filippo (2003). E-Learning. Comunicare e formarsi online (E-learning. Communicating and learning on-line). Milan: Lupetti – Editori di Comunicazione.
  
  A brilliant text that focuses on certain points of extreme importance where communication, methodology and the management of on-line learning courses are concerned. From the reflections of the authors, the following concept is clear: e-learning differs from the traditional didactic approach in that it is possible to use networks as a collaborative means, where virtual space becomes a space for growth and interaction between the on-line communities and the network is no longer understood as a computer network, but as individuals’ networks. Learning is stimulated through belonging to the group and it is precisely the ongoing confrontation with the group, the exchange of experiences and ideas among those participating in the learning experience that contributes to the acquisition of notions by the individual, increasing motivation and thus also encouraging the growth of the entire on-line community. The roles of the figures involved and rapports within the virtual classes are undergoing a genuine revolution. The introduction of new information technology instruments influences the type of communicative model that is installed: teachers and tutor are no longer at the centre of the communicative process and no longer constitute the only source of knowledge. Furthermore, the student is no longer limited to a mere receptive and passive role, but takes on an active role and has greater autonomy in the construction of the learning course itself (learner-centred approach). The main task of teachers and tutors is to stimulate, motivate and enable the flow of knowledge, guiding and monitoring the progress of the pupils.
  
  
• Calvani A. e Rotta M. (2000). Fare formazione in Internet. Manuale di didattica online (Learning via Internet. On-line educational manual). Trento: Edizioni Centro Studi Erickson.
  
  This is a fundamental publication in order to gain a complete idea with regard to distance learning, starting with its history and ending with the most efficient and up-to-date applications. After a first part, in which the main mechanisms of “presence” and “absence” communication are analysed, the text concentrates on more practical issues, such as the design and preparation of on-line courses, presenting the main problems involved. The manual concludes with a series of in-depth charts, a reasoned bibliography and network resources.
  
• Mabrito M. “Guidelines for establishing interactivity in on-line courses” in Innovate on line, 2004 (consulted on 12 July 2005).
  
  The objective of the article is to enable an understanding of the importance of interactivity within on-line courses. There are three possible types of interactivity: 1) student-teacher interaction; 2) student-student interaction; and 3) student content interaction. The author provides a series of practical advice in order to increase interactivity, an element that contributes greatly to the success of the courses. Diverse studies show that on-line courses are particularly effective when the students manage to be active participants and learn through a collaborative approach: collaborative interaction is the key to the knowledge creation process.
  
  
• Trentin G. (2003). Gestire la complessità dei sistemi di e-learning (Managing the complexity of e-learning systems). Taken from the minutes of the Didamatica 2003 annual convention, pp. 1-8.
  
  In this interesting article, Trentin underlines the importance of defining above all the e-learning model that is to be implemented. It is fundamental to be aware beforehand, in order to organise the project as well as possible. For example, for a model based on self-instruction, and therefore on the use of structured materials, professional figures and specific technologies are necessary for the production of e-content; however, for an approach based on learning groups, it is necessary to consider specific professionals (such as on-line tutors) and technologies with ad hoc functionalities for group interaction. It is therefore evident that the choice of model has a decisive influence from a didactic-pedagogical point of view, but also from a purely operative point of view (human resources for the design and management of the educational project, technologies and organisational order). According to Trentin, future studies should concentrate on the problems preventing the dissemination of the proposed models. From his conclusions, it is clear that “the key is to acquire knowledge regarding the demand for a change in paradigm in confronting the issues of continued learning, moving away from the learning on the job logic to that of learning is the job”.
  

Future Developments
Key terms: Integration with KM, Mobile or Wireless Learning.

A number of authors illustrate the possible developments of e-learning in the near future. On the one hand, a close integration of platforms (Learning Management Systems) with other platforms that are currently used for a number of purposes is forecast, until knowledge management is reached through a single integrated structure. On the other hand, there is greater talk of mobile learning (m-learning) or wireless learning, a learning method that takes advantage of the possibilities of wireless networks, such as those in wi-fi systems, mobile telephones or palm systems. Some of the studies presented in the section demonstrate how these instruments can encourage learning during one’s free time, effectively representing the possibility of learning any time, anywhere.

• Attewell J e Savill-Smith C. “Learning with mobile devices, Research and development”, in LSDA (Learning and Skill Development Agency), 2004 (consulted on 29 June 2005).
  
  An interesting set of studies on the possible applications of mobile devices for learning. Topics discussed include the effectiveness of m-learning, costs, content development methodology, the type of design necessary, the learning potential of games, and the role that mobile learning may play in increasing social inclusion.
  
• Giacomantonio M. “Il futuro dell’e-learning” (The future of e-learning) in WBT (Formazione in Rete), (in WBT, web-based training). March 2003 (consulted on 29 June 2005).
  
  After a brief overview of the various aspects that characterise e-learning, such as the role, the sectors (content, communication, support, management), the instruments and technologies, the author questions the future of distance learning. Having overcome the adaptation to the standards phase (already in operation for a number of years and at a satisfactory stage) to eliminate the link to certain technological solutions, e-learning will undergo an integration with many diverse applications, thus reaching a more mature phase, to border on more evolved and mature sectors such as KM (Knowledge Management), CRM (Customer Relationship Management), and ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), becoming an integral part of HRM (Human Resource Management).
  
• Giacomantonio M. “Dove vanno le piattaforme di e-Learning” (Where the e-learning platforms are headed), in WBT (Formazione in Rete) in WBT (Web-based Training), September 2004 (consulted on 29 June 2005).
  
  The author presents an in-depth analysis of the current LMS characteristics, their evolution and future developments. His conclusion is that the current trend is that of converging e-learning platforms with other technological instruments for content management, document management and project management, in order to attain complete instruments for integrated knowledge management. Indeed, even today, on-line learning activities are no longer reduced to simple structure courses; one learns through working in groups, connecting to the Internet and managing projects together with other people. Therefore, new modules with new functionalities will be integrated within the platforms.
  
• Prensky M. “What Can You Learn from a Cell Phone? Almost Anything!”, in Innovate online, June 2005 (consulted on 12 July 2005).
  
  Mobile devices, particularly mobile telephones, are becoming increasingly small and powerful. Although they are still considered instruments to be used prevalently for telephone communication or, more recently, for recreational purposes, mobile telephones have now become genuine computers. Like any information technology communication instrument, mobile telephones can be used for learning, bearing in mind the fact that they have a huge distribution, particularly among young people and students. After illustrating how to take advantage of the various characteristics of mobile phones (voice, SMS, graphic displays, download functions, Internet navigation, GPS, etc.), the author concludes the article by suggesting, particularly to those who continue to seek to ignore the phenomenon, that this learning mode be seriously considered, and advising a flexible reconsideration of how to design content and activities for mobile learning.
  

The findings originate from the Special Interest Group FILTER supported by the European Commission. FILTER studies the filtering mechanisms in the e-learning environment, see www.filternetwork.org. Both authors are members of the FILTER team.

In the context of the FILTER project respondents in different European countries were asked to reflect on how learners with special needs are assisted in accessing their virtual communities, what barriers exist and what solutions are available. The respondents were asked to review a website in their country or region, and to identify any potential barriers such as ‘missing text equivalents’ or ‘inaccessible online forms’. The reviewed websites are amongst others: www.open.ac.uk, www.kennisnet.nl, www.ou.nl and www.universitet.no. Some respondents explained how the reviewed site helps people who are blind to use the site, or that in some cases there are no text alternatives at all. Most reviewed sites however do offer text alternatives. Some country specific experiences arising from the FILTER study are discussed below.

United Kingdom: The Open University

The Open University in the United Kingdom (OU/UK) is very advanced in this respect and has a policy to deal with students with a wide variety of special needs. The University has its own Center for Assistive Technology and Enabling Research (CATER). CATER supports the development of an accessible curriculum through a number of ongoing projects. It also provides ongoing staff development together with the development of enhanced technology based services for people with special needs.

The OU/UK website (see www.open.ac.uk) has a large range of facilities for students who are disabled: including those who are blind or partially sighted, deaf or hard of hearing, people with restricted mobility or manual dexterity, with dyslexia or other specific learning difficulties, with mental health difficulties, with specific medical conditions, or with impaired speech. Adaptations of the curriculum include the tape-recording or videotaping of course materials, the conversion of printed texts into e-books thus enabling texts to be read on screen with the aid of a screen reader, as well as the use of particular programme applications to suit the needs of users with impaired mobility.

The preferred method of teaching can be discussed with the tutor by e-mail. If the student does not feel able to go to tutorials, copies of tutorial materials can be sent to the student. The possibility of an individual tutorial or extended correspondence tuition can also be explored. The Study Support or Disability and Additional Requirements Team in the student’s local Regional Center can also deal with any queries a student might have. In addition, the Evening Advice Line is available out of office hours. Some Centers have additional facilities to provide ongoing support.

The OU/UK has a Learner’s Guide Services for Disabled Students website at http://www3.open.ac.uk/learners-guide/disability/index.htm. More than 8,700 disabled students – a figure higher than the entire student populations of some UK universities – currently benefit from the Open University’s pioneering work in transforming higher education into a better place for learners with special needs. The OU/UK is a guide for other institutions. About 8000 tutors can transfer their knowledge to others. In the UK each university is required to be pro-active in the field of special needs policy.

Denmark: ”Tilgængelighed til uddannelse”

”Tilgængelighed til uddannelse” http://tilgaengelighed.emu.dk is a Danish educational portal containing advice and guidance about education and aid to people with disabilities. The providers of this portal have ensured that their own portal is accessible for people with disabilities.

However, as far as access to online forms is concerned, the reviewed websites failed to observe the design guidelines. The result is that users with disabilities are unable to complete online forms and therefore may be filtered out of benefiting from what the site is offering. Furthermore, respondents were asked about ‘inaccessible device restrictions’ for example those interactions that are only available using a mouse, and hence interactions that any user with either a motor or visual disability would be excluded from performing.

However, many web sites are designed in such a way that certain interactions are only available via a mouse. When asked if the reviewed website had inaccessible device restrictions, only one respondent noted that there was an alternative (tab and enter) to using the mouse for interacting with the site.

The Netherlands: Drempels Weg

In the Netherlands a project has been launched by the Ministry of Culture and Education entitled Drempels Weg (translated: Delete Barriers). The purpose is to enhance the accessibility of websites for people with disabilities. Drempels Weg makes organizations and the public in general more aware of the potential access problems faced by people with disabilities and assists organizations in making their sites more accessible.

The website www.sonokids.com enables children to create their own website. One of the games is the RaDaR soundgame where children learn to e-mail, chat and can even build their very own, accessible, website. The mole, the bat and the dolphin are animals that share one common attribute, that is that they do not use their eyes. These animals are the major characters in the game, see also www.sonokids.nl/radar.

Another initiative Netwerk ff contact :0] (www.ffcontact.nl) includes different websites for different target audiences and age groups. Netwerk ff contact :0] has been developed to enable children that suffer from long term illness to chat with each other. Some children are excluded from school and friendships for a long time. The site Sterrekind (www.sterrewereld.nl) gives them the opportunity to get connected with and communicate with children in similar circumstances. There are communities for small children (3-5 years), as well as for older children and teenagers where they can listen to music or watch a movie together. Sterrewereld originated in the hospitals of Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague and has now been launched on a national scale. Even a song contest was launched recently.

On another site of the Stichting Artsen voor Kinderen (www.artsenvoorkinderen.nl), children can address a question to a medical doctor, and the site Diabeter (www.ysl.nl or www.diabeter.nl) focuses on education. Other Web initiatives are launched for children with muscular diseases, and the Foundation Rob facilitates imagephone calls for children that are in hospital and want to communicate with their friends or family.

Ireland: accessibility for all in website access.

In recent years the European Commission has been actively developing action plans and policies in relation to access to Information and Communication Technologies for all Europeans (cited in Irish National Disability Authority (NDA) Accessibility Guidelines, nd). While it is not clear how far these objectives have been achieved within individual Member States, it does appear that the Irish Government has taken steps to try to ensure accessibility for all, particularly in relation to website access.

For example, the Irish National Disability Authority outlines proposals by Government in 1999 in its ‘Report of the Inter-Departmental Implementation Group on the Information Society’ which recommends that “Websites should be designed and operated in accordance with the needs of users” and “the key principle underlining accessibility is that websites should be easy for everyone to use, including people with a disability” (NDA, nd). However, an extensive survey carried out by McMullin (2003) and mentioned earlier in this article, analyzed over 159 Irish websites. The survey found that 100 percent failed to meet the professional practice WCAG-AA accessibility standard; 94 percent failed to meet the minimum WCAG-A accessibility standard, and at least 90 percent failed to meet minimal conformance with other generic technical standards for web interoperability. (Information relating to WCAG [Web Content Accessibility Guidelines] is available from the World Wide Web Consortium’s website listed at the end of this paper in the reference section).

Spain: Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia

New teaching technologies can help people with disabilities to make progress both within the educational field and within the wider social and economic world of work and play. “Project FOTEUMIDIS, initiated in 1997, draws on all of Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia’s (UNED) media to deliver audio and video instruction through the Digital Network of Integrated Telephone Services (RDSI) public line” (García Aretio, 1998). This university-level teaching is directed towards those affected by different types of disability. The objective is to make it possible for individuals with a disability to study via multi-video conference through RDSI and so obtain the maximum results with the least amount of effort. Collaborating with UNED in this project are the Ministry of Work and Social Affairs (INSERSO), Telephónica, the ONCE foundation, IBM, Alcer Murcia, and INSALUD (García Aretio, 2001).

Belgium: the Wai-Not project

Jointly with some European partners the project Wai-Not has developed computer applications that are beneficial to children with a wide range of special needs, particularly those with developmental or learning difficulties, (see www.wai-not.be). In addition to encouraging Internet access by children with special needs, Wai-Not also investigates if access to activities on the Internet by these groups of people has the potential to enhance their social integration into society.

One of the tools used on the website is an Internet playground with creative, recreative and informative content. A combination of written text, spoken text and pictograms are presented, thus accommodating the needs of users with many different types of disability. Wai-Not shows that people who find reading and writing a challenge are able to use the Internet. Wai-Not originated from some Belgium schools for children with disabilities and was supported by the European Commission under the Minerva programme.

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